Regional Anatomy(topographic anatomy) : This has to do with the organisation of human body as major part or segments. The main body consisting head, neck and trunk; paired upper limbs and lower limbs. Regional Anatomy focus on specific part(e.g head), area(e.g face), or region(e.g the orbital or eye region); and examing the arrangements and relationships of various systemic structure (muscles, nerves, arteries) within it. Regional Anatomy also recognises the body's organisation by layers: skin, subcutaneous tissue and deep fascia covering the deeper structure of the muscles, skeleton and cavities, which contain viscera (internal organs)
Surface Anatomy
it is an essential part of the study of regional anatomy which provides knowledge of what lies under the skin and what structures are perceptible to touch (palpable) in the living body at rest and in action. The aim of this method is to visualize structures that confer contour to the surface and in clinical class practice, to distinguish any unusual or abnormal findings. Physical examination such as palpation is a clinical technique, used with observations and listening to examine the body, e.g palpation of arterial pulses.
Regional study of deep structures and abnormalities in a living person is now also possible by the means of radiographic, sectional imaging and endoscopy. Radiographic and sectional imaging (radiographic anatomy) provides useful information about normal structure in living individual, demonstrating the effect of muscle tone, body fluids and pressures gravity that cadaveric study does not. Diagnostic radiology reveals the effect of trauma, pathology and aging on normal structure.
Endoscopic techniques (using an insertable flexible fiber optic device to examine internal structures, such as the interior of the stomach) also demonstrate living anatomy.
Prosection: A carefully prepared dissections for the demonstration of anatomical structure are also useful.
Systemic Anatomy
Systemic anatomy is the study of body's organ system that work together to carry out complex functions. They are
1. The integumentary system (dermatology) : consist of skin and its appendages.
2. The skeletal system (osteology) : consists of bones and cartilages.
3. The Articular system (arthology) : consists of joints and their associated ligaments.
4. Muscular system (myology) : consists of skeletal muscles.
5. The nervous system (neurology) : consists of central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and the peripheral nervous system (nerves and ganglia, together with their motor and sensory endings.
6. The circulatory system (angiology) : consists of the cardiovascular and lymphatic system, which function in parallel to transport the body's fluid.
7. The alimentary or digestive system (gastroenterology)
8. The respiratory system (pulmonology)
9. The urinary system (urology)
10. The genital (Reproductive) system (gynaecology for females and andrology for males)
11. The endocrine system (endocrinology)
Clinical Anatomy
Clinical anatomy(applied anatomy) emphasises aspects of bodily structure and function important in the practice of Medicine, dentistry and the allied health sciences.
Anatomicomedical terminology
Anatomical position : The anatomical position refers to the body position when a person stands upright with the
- Head, gaze(eye) and toes directed anteriorly (forward)
- Arms adjacent to the sides with the palms facing anteriorly and
- The lower limbs close together with the feet parallel.
This position is adopted globally for Anatomicomedical description.
Anatomical planes
Anatomical descriptions are based on four imaginary planes that intersect the body in the Anatomical position. They are
- The median plane(median sagittal plane) : it is the vertical plane passing longitudinally through the body and divide the body into right and left halves.
- Sagittal plane : they are vertical plane passing through the body at right angles to the median plane; a plane parallel and near to the median plane may be referred to as a paramedian plane.
- Frontal(coronal) planes: they are vertical planes passing through the body at right angles, dividing the body into anterior and posterior parts.
- Tranverse planes : are horizontal planes passing through the body at right angles to the median and frontal planes, dividing the body into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) parts.
Terms of relationship and comparison
Superior - upwards, towards the cranium (head)
Inferior - downward, towards the caudal region (tail bone)
Posterior (dorsal) : donates the back surface of the body.
Anterior (ventral) : donates the front surface of the body.
Medial is used to indicate that a structure is nearer to the median plane of the body, e.g. the 5th digit finger (little finger)
Lateral stipulates that a structure is farther away from the median, eg. The first digit finger (thumb).
Dorsum: usually refers to the superior aspect of any part that protrudes anteriorly from the body, such as the dorsum of the tongue, nose, Penis, and hand or leg. To be more illustrative, the posterior part of your hand is called the dorsum (dorsal surface), while the anterior part is called the palm(Palmer surface). Likewise the superior foot surface (top dorsal surface) is called dorsum while the inferior part is called sole (planter surface).
Inferomedial means nearer to the feet and median planes, eg. The anterior part of the ribs run Inferomedially.
Superlateral means nearer to the head and farther from the median plane.
Other terms are independent of Anatomical position or plane, eg. Superficial, intermediate and deep, all describe the position of structures relative to the surface of the body.
External means outside of an organ or cavity while internal means inside or closer to the centre.
Proximal or distal are used when contrasting positions nearer to or farther from the attachment of a limb or the Central aspect of linear structure, respectively.
Terms of laterality
- Bilateral - paired structure having left and right, eg. Kidneys
- Unilateral - one-sided structure, eg. Spleen.
- Ipsilateral-occuring on the same side of the body as another structure, eg. Right and left hand.
Most movement are defined in terms of Anatomical position, joints, and pairs of oppositing movements.
- Flexion : indicates bending or decreasing the angle between the bones or part of the body. Occurs mainly in anterior direction.
- Extension : indicates straightening or increasing the angle between the bones or parts of the body. Occurs mainly in posterior direction.
- Dorsiflexion: describes flexion at the ankle joint, as occurs when walking uphill or lifting the front of the foot and toes off the ground.
- Planter flexion : bends the foot and toes towards the ground as when standing on your toes.
- Hyperextension : extention of the limb or part beyond the normal limit. It may cause injury such as whiplash.
- Abduction : means moving away from the median plane, eg. When moving an upper limb laterally away from the side of your body. In digits (fingers or toes) it means spreading them apart i.e moving the other fingers away from the neutrally positioned 3rd(middle) finger and likewise the toes. Left and right lateral flexion (bending) are special forms of abduction for only the neck and trunk.
- Adduction : means moving towards the median plane. Adduction of the the digits means bringing spread fingers or toes together. Also, the thumb flexes and extends in the frontal plane and abducts and adducts in the sagittal plane.
- Circumduction: it is a circular movement that involves sequential flexion, abduction, extention and Adduction in such a way that the distal end of the part moves in a circle. Circumduction can occur at any joint at which all the above mentioned movements are possible. (eg. The shoulder and hip joints)
- Rotation : it involves turning or revolving a part of the body around its longitudinal axis, such as turning ones head to face sideways. Medial rotation (internal rotation) brings the anterior surface of the limb closer to the median plane, whereas lateral rotation (external rotation) takes the anterior surface away from the median plane.
- Pronation : rotates the radius medially so that the palm of the hand faces posteriorly and its dorsum facing anteriorly. When the elbow joint is flexed, pronation moves the hand such that the palm faces inferiorly. (eg. Placing the palm flat on the table)
- Supination : it is the opposite of rotational movement, rotating the radius laterally and uncrossing it from the ulna, returning the pronated forearm to the Anatomical position. When the elbow joint is flexed, Supination moves the hand so that the palm faces superiorly. (you can hold soup in the palm of your hand when the flexed forearm is Supinated, but are likely to spill it if the forearm is pronated.
- Eversion : moves the sole of the foot away from the median plane, turning the sole laterally (dorsiflexed)
- Inversion : moves the sole of the foot towards the median plane(planterflexed)
- Opposition : it is the Movement by which the pad of the first digit (thumb) is brought to another digit pad. This movement is used to pinch, button a shirt and lift a teacup by the handle.
- Reposition: describes the Movement of the first digit from the position of opposition back to its Anatomical position.
- Protrusion : it is an anterior or forward movement as in protruding the tongue, China, lip. Retrusion is the opposite of.
- Protraction and retraction are used most commonly for anterolateral and posterolateral movements of the scapula on the thoracic wall, causing the shoulder region to move anteriorly and posteriorly.
- Elevation means upward movement while depression means downward movement.
Reference :clinically oriented anatomy(Keith Moore), Last's anatomy (Chummy. S. Sinnatamby)
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